The Papacy of the Plot

Midi Music William Byrd, 1543-1623, "The Sweet and Merry Month of May," 15K 

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Among the popes there have been poor men in plenty, but Clement VIII was the 
first bank clerk to obtain the tiara. Ippolito Aldobrandini was born in 1536 at Fano. 
His father was a political exile from Florence. Ippolito, rescued from the bank by 
Cardinal Farnese's kindness, studied law at Padua, Perugia, and Bologna. He 
entered the service of the Church, but his advancement was slow until the reign of 
Sixtus V. That energetic Pope promoted him rapidly. A cardinal in 1585, Ippolito 
made a great reputation as legate to Poland in 1588. Thereafter he was considered a 
possibility for the papacy. Elected on January 30, 1592, he took the name Clement 
VIII. 

Clement was above all a spiritual pope. For years Philip Neri had been his 
confessor, and now every night the great Oratorian Baronius came to hear the 
Pope's confession. As zealous as he was devout, the busy Clement would often take 
a confessional in St. Peter's so that anyone who wished could go to the Pope 
himself. He did much to promote the forty hours' devotion. He often visited 
hospitals, not only to comfort the sick and distribute alms, but to check on the food. 
He was a truly humble man who could accept criticism. His only defect was 
nepotism. 

Clement's great achievement was the settlement of the French problem. Henry of 
Navarre was gaining steadily. Now that he had accepted Catholicism, opposition 
melted away. French bishops absolved him, but still at Rome the Spaniards grimly 
struggled to prevent the Pope from granting Henry absolution. Influenced by 
spiritual men like St. Philip Neri, the historian Baronius, the theologian Toledo, 
Clement at last on September 17, 1595, solemnly absolved Henry IV. The way was 
open for peace in France and men felt that the danger of Spanish domination over 
the papacy was on the wane.(Note the interference of the Pope in the internal
politics of France and Spain and the reciprocal interference of these nations
with the papacy-it is as if there was no distinction between papacy and state-
a situation that emergent nationalism in England wished to avoid)

Clement was a great mission pope. Under his vigorous leadership, the enterprising 
Ricci entered China, the Japanese withstood the first shock of persecution, and 
Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits reaped rich harvests in the Philippines, 
Mexico(where as you may know many hundreds were slaughtered who would not 
convert under the watchful eyes of the Jesuits-a level of intolerance that England
wished to avoid even if it meant persecution and execution of those who wished to 
convert the English and destroy the state-so great was the threat), and South America.
The Pope sent missionaries to Persia and Abyssinia and even to the court of the Great Mogul.
He strove to reunite the Copts of Egypt and the schismatics of Serbia. He succeeded in
bringing some Ukrainians back to the Church by the Union of Brest in 1598. And at home
in Europe the tide of Catholic reform was winning back much that had been lost in the bad 
days. It was a 
great outpouring of zeal, and to channel and control it Clement set up a congregation 
of cardinals. (I would differ with the title "mission" pope. These were hardly missions
for souls alone- they were missions to regain and obtain political control lost in what
the church considers the "bad days"or what much of the rest of the world considers 
the reformation and "good days" which saw the development of nationalism and 
eventually parliamentary democracy- in contrast with the further development of 
oppressive Absolutism in Both France and Spain (the two major Catholic States))

Two famous executions took place in Clement's reign--that of the parricide Beatrice 
Cenci about whom legend and Shelley have woven an unmerited spell, and that of 
Giordano Bruno. Clement forbade dueling, revised the breviary, and found time to 
encourage the poet Tasso and set on foot many works of art. To judge the case of 
the great Jesuit theologian Luis Molina, whose doctrine on grace had been assailed 
by Dominicans, the Pope set up a special congregation. Clement took great interest 
in this matter, but before it could be settled, he was struck down by apoplexy, 
March 5, 1605. 

Excerpted from "Popes Through the Ages" by Joseph Brusher, S.J Back to the table
 
 
 

Pope Leo XI-1605

-The Pope Just Before The Plot

Leo XI was a member of the famous Medici family and a grandnephew of Leo X. 
But while Leo X was a thoroughgoing Renaissance prince, his grandnephew was a 
true Counterreformation (here one must actually read "counter nation state" 
"imperialistic")pope. One typical Medici quality was shared by both, a 
love for literature and art. 

Alessandro de' Medici was born in 1555. He was a pious lad and was so fond of the 
Dominican friars of San Marco that it was thought that this Medici would enter the 
family of Savanarola. But he chose to become a secular priest and worked quietly in 
a country parish until 1569, when his relative, Duke Cosimo, sent him as Tuscan 
ambassador to Rome. At Rome he became a disciple and close friend of St. Philip 
Neri. In 1573 Alessandro was made, first, bishop of Pistoia, then archbishop of 
Florence. Though he was forced to remain at Rome, Alessandro saw to it that the 
reform decrees of Trent were carried out in his archdiocese. Made a cardinal by 
Gregory XIII in 1583, he was sent by Clement VIII as legate to France in the crucial 
years 1596-1598. There he became a friend of Henry IV. 

Naturally the Spaniards were opposed to him, and his chances for the papacy were 
so lightly esteemed that Cardinal Avila, King Philip's mouthpiece, did not bother to 
publish his monarch's veto until too late.(it is important to note the close link between 
Catholic Spain and the Papacy- it was as if they were one- This is exactly what the 
English Nation state wished to avoid at all cost. In England under James I Catholics
who would not attempt to convert the people or the state would be tolerated Catholic 
political control over the English state was not acceptable) Baronius, the great historian,
was the favorite at the conclave which began on March 14,1605; but Baronius had told too 
much truth too impartially in his history to suit Spanish susceptibility, and so this 
holy and learned man, to his own joy and relief, was kept from becoming pope. At 
last after several weeks the majority swung to Medici. Too late Cardinal Avila 
protested bitterly, but even his own party told him to quiet down. Alessandro 
accepted and chose to be called Leo XI. The French were jubilant but Leo quickly 
showed that he intended to be the tool of no ruler. 

Easter Sunday, April 17, the coronation day of Leo, was a gala occasion for the 
Romans, but for Leo himself it was deadly. The old man caught a chill during the 
ceremonies and soon was in bed fighting vainly for his life. When it became evident 
that he was going to die, appeals rained on him to make a nephew a cardinal. 
Although the candidate was worthy, Leo had so great a horror for this rather 
common papal failing, that he repeatedly refused. Indeed when his confessor added 
his voice to the general pleading, Leo exchanged his confessor for another more 
prudent or detached. 

Leo XI died piously on April 27,1605. Although he had ruled so short a time, he 
managed to lower taxes and send help to the Hungarians in their struggle against the 
Turks. 

Excerpted from "Popes Through the Ages" by Joseph Brusher Back to the table
 
 

Pope Paul V 1605-1621

The Pope During The Plot itself
 

Baronius and St. Robert Bellarmine were among those considered as successors of 
Leo XI, but finally the cardinals chose Camillo Borghese, who took the name Paul 
V. Camillo Borghese was born at Rome on September 17, 1550. His family, 
originally from Siena, claimed relationship with the great mystic, St. Catherine. 
Trained at Perugia and Padua, Camillo became an expert canon lawyer. In 1596 
Clement VIII made him a cardinal and vicar of Rome. No party man, he was 
agreeable to all factions. 

Paul V was a vigorous fifty-two(error?55?(1605)) when elected. Pious and learned, charitable and 
hard-working, he made an excellent pastor. Being a canon lawyer, he believed rules 
were made to be kept, and his rigorous enforcement of Trent reform decrees caused 
a deal of rustling in Roman ecclesiastical circles. The same respect for law made 
him a terror to evildoers. Like Sixtus V he was concerned to put down banditry. 

Paul V had a hard time with Venice. The republic's pride seemed to swell in 
proportion as its power decreased. It had defied church law to forbid the erection of 
new church buildings and to arrest two clerics. Paul tried to bring the republic to 
reason, but when the oligarchs stubbornly defied all threats, the Pope 
excommunicated doge and senate and placed Venice under interdict. The Venetian 
government defied the interdict by ordering priests to go ahead with services, and 
when Capuchins, Jesuits, and Theatines refused, the oligarchs expelled them. This 
quarrel almost flamed into a European war. When Paul tried to raise an army,(Note here
the blatant drive of the papacy toward domination of secular states and their
internal affairs. In an age of emergent nationalism the papacy stood in opposition
to the forces which supported "home rule" pluralism and tolerance)
England and Holland threatened to intervene in favor of Venice. Meanwhile a war 
of words was bitterly fought. Paolo Sarpi, a Servite who combined brilliant 
scholarship with a most peculiar notion of Catholic loyalty, wrote furiously against 
the Pope, while Baronius and St. Robert Bellarmine brought their vast learning into 
play to defend him. After a year of struggle, shrewd King Henry IV of France 
mediated to bring peace. Venice gave in as little as possible but enough to justify the 
Pope in releasing the republic from censure. 

Wily King James of England also gave trouble to Paul. He issued a new oath of 
allegiance which, cunningly worded, was considered acceptable by some Catholics. 
Paul V had to condemn this oath twice, and even so, it made for division among the 
English Catholics.(note here that English Catholics now increassingly viewed
their identity as English to be more important then their ties to Rome.
The papacy resisted attempts to develop and maintain the division between church and government)

A great patron of art, Paul V succeeded in having Carlo Maderna finally bring the 
construction of St. Peter's to a grandiose finish. Paul had one defect, nepotism Too 
fond of his relatives, he made the fortune of the Borghese family. He was, however, 
a broad-minded and energetic leader in mission activity. He did not discourage the 
daring innovations of men like Matteo Ricci and Robert de Nobili. 

Paul V died of a stroke on January 28,1621. 

Excerpted from "Popes Through the Ages" by Joseph Brusher, S.J. Back to the table
 

Influential Figures and Advisors of the Popes 

Claudius Acquaviva
-Superior of Henry Garnet-leader of the English Jesuits during the time of the plot.
Fifth General of the Society of Jesus, born October, 1543; died 31 January, 1615. He was the son of Prince Giovanni Antonio Acquaviva, Duke of Atri, in the Abruzzi, and, at twenty-five, when high in favor at the papal court, renounced his brilliant worldly prospects, and entered the Society. After being Provincial both of Naples and Rome, he was elected General of the Society, 19 February,1581. He was the youngest who ever occupied that post. His election coincided with the first accusation of ambition ever made against a great official of the Order. Manareus had been named Vicar by Father Mercurian, and it was alleged that he aspired to the generalship. His warm defender was Acquaviva, but to dispel the slightest suspicion, Manareus renounced his right to be elected. 
Acquaviva was chosen by a strong majority. His subsequent career justified the wisdom of the 
choice, which was very much doubted at the time by the Pope himself. During his generalship, the persecution(read resistance to the Catholic Counter Reformation)  in England, wither he had once asked to go as a missionary, was raging; the Huguenot  troubles in France were at their height; Christianity was being crushed in Japan; the Society was expelled from Venice, and was oppressed elsewhere;(note when catholics use the words oppression  and persecution they mean that their efforts to convert and dominate the people of a region or a nation met with opposition)  a schism within the Society was immanent; the pope, the Inquisition, and Philip II were hostile. Acquaviva was denounced to the Pope, even by men like Toletus (q.v.), yet such was his prudence, his skill, his courage, and his success, that he is regarded as the greatest administrator, after St. Ignatius, the Society ever had. Even those who were 
jealous of him admitted his merit, when, to satisfy them, the fifth and sixth Congregations ordered an investigation to be made of his method of government. The greatest difficulty he had to face was the schism organized in Spain by Vasquez (q.v.). The King and Pope had been won over by the dissidents. Open demands for quasi-independence for Spain had been made in the Congregations of the Society. No Jesuit was allowed to leave Spain without royal permission. Episcopal visitation of  the houses had been asked for and granted. But finally, through the mediation of the English Jesuit, Robert Parsons (q.v.), who was highly esteemed by Philip, the King was persuaded of the impolicy of the measures, while Acquaviva convinced the Pope that the schism would be disastrous for the Church. Deprived of these supports the rebellion collapsed. Simultaneously the Inquisition was doing its best to destroy the Society. It listened to defamatory accusations, threw the Provincial of Castille into prison, demanded the surrender of the Constitutions for examination, until Acquaviva succeeded 
in inducing the Pope to call the case to his own tribunal, and revoke the powers which had been given to the Inquisition, or which it claimed. Finally, Pope Sixtus V, who had always been unfriendly to the Society, determined to change it completely. The Emperor Ferdinand implored him not to act; the College of Cardinals resisted; but the Pope was obstinate. The bull was prepared, and Acquaviva himself was compelled to send in a personal request to have even the name changed, when the death of the pontiff saved the situation--a coincidence which gave rise to accusations against the Society. 
His successor, Gregory XIV, hastened to renew all the former privileges of the Order, and to confirm its previous approbations. 

During Acquaviva's administration, the protracted controversy on Grace, between the Dominicans and the Jesuits, took place, and was carried on with some interruptions for nearly nine years, without either party drawing any decision from the Church, the contestants being ultimately ordered to discontinue the discussion. It was Acquaviva who ordered the scheme of Jesuit studies, known as the "Ratio Studiorum" (q.v.), to be drawn up which, with some modifications, has been followed to the present day. Six of the most learned and experienced scholars of the Society were summoned toRome, who laid out the entire plan of studies, beginning with theology, philosophy and their cognate branches, and going down to the smallest details of grammar. When finished, it was sent to the different Provinces for suggestions, but was not imposed until 1592, and then with the proviso that 
the Society would determine what charge was to be to made, which was done in the General 
Congregation of 1593. 

The period of his generalship was the most notable in the history of the Society for the men it 
produced, and the work it accomplished. The names of Suarez, Toletus, Bellarmine, Maldontus, Clavius, Lessius, Ripalda, Ricci, Parsons, Southwell, Campion, Aloysius Gonzaga, and a host of others are identified with it. Royal and pontifical missions (note here that such missions while called religious were essentially political in view of their goals and objectives- that is In England the goal was to modify and convert the state not to develop tolerance but to reclaim the political entitiy as a catholic province subject to Rome) to France, Russia, Poland, Constantinople,and Japan were entrusted to men like Possevin, and Bellarmine, and Vallignani. Houses were multiplied all over the world with an astonishing rapidity. The colleges were educating some of the most brilliant statesmen, princes, and warriors of Europe. The Reductions of Paraguay were organized; the heroic work of the missions of Canada were begun; South America was being traversed in all directions; China had been penetrated, and the Jesuits were the emperor's official astronomers; martyrs in great numbers were sacrificing their lives in England, America, India, Japan, and elsewhere;(notice that there is no mention here of the countless thousands who were sacrificed at the hands of the Catholic States with the blessing of the Jesuits- this is exactly what England was forced to confront with strict punishments and sanctions) and the great struggle organized by Canisius and Nadal to check the Reformation in Germany had been brought to a successful conclusion. The guiding spirit of all these great achievements, and many more besides, was Claudius Acquaviva. He died at the age of seventy-one,31 January, 1615. Jouvency says the longer he lived the more glorious the Society became; andCordarius speaks of his election as an inspiration. Besides the "Ratio Studiorum," of which he is substantially the author, as it was under his initiative and supervision that the plan was conceived and carried out, we have also the "Directorium Exercitiorum Spiritualium S.P.N. Ignatii," or "Guide to the Spiritual Exercises" which was also suggested and revised by him. This work has been inserted in the "Corpus Instituti S.J." More directly his are the "Industriae ad Curandos Aninme Morbos." As General, he wrote many encyclical letters, and he is author of nearly all the "Ordinationes Generalium" which were printed in 1595, with the Approbation of the Fifth General Congregation. Many other documents and letters, relating chiefly to matters of government. are still extant. 

Jouvency, Epitome Hist. Soc. Jesu, IV; Crétineau-Joly, Historie de la Comp de Jesus III; Varones Ilustres, V, 79; 
Menologium S. J., 31 January. Back to the table
 

St. Philip Romolo Neri

APOSTLE OF ROME, b. at Florence, Italy, 22 July, 1515; d. 27 May, 1595. Philip's family 
originally came from Castelfranco but had lived for many generations in Florence, where not a few of its members had practised the learned professions, and therefore took rank with the Tuscan nobility. Among these was Philip's own father, Francesco Neri, who eked out an insufficient private fortune with what he earned as a notary. A circumstance which had no small influence on the life of the saint was Francesco's friendship with the Dominicans; for it was from the friars of S. Marco, amid the memories of Savonarola, that Philip received many of his early religious impressions. Besides a younger brother, who died in early childhood, Philip had two younger sisters, Caterina and Elisabetta. It was with them that "the good Pippo", as he soon began to be called, committed his only known fault. He gave a slight push to Caterina, because she kept interrupting him and Elisabetta, while they were reciting psalms together, a practice of which, as a boy, he was remakably fond. One incident of his childhood is dear to his early biographers as the first visible intervention of Providence on his behalf, and perhaps dearer still to his modern disciples, because it reveals the human characteristics of a boy amid the supernatural graces of a saint. When about eight years old he was 
left alone in a courtyard to amuse himself; seeing a donkey laden with fruit, he jumped on its back; the beast bolted, and both tumbled into a deep cellar. His parents hastened to the spot and extricated the child, not dead, as they feared, but entirely uninjured. 

From the first it was evident that Philip's career would run on no conventional lines; when shown his family pedigree he tore it up, and the burning of his father's house left him unconcerned. Having studied the humanities under the best scholars of a scholarly generation, at the age of sixteen he was sent to help his father's cousin in business at S. Germano, near Monte Cassino. He applied himself with diligence, and his kinsman soon determined to make him his heir. But he would often withdraw for prayer to a little mountain chapel belonging to the Benedictines of Monte Cassino, built above the harbour of Gaeta in a cleft of rock which tradition says was among those rent at the hour of Our Lord's death. It was here that his vocation became definite: he was called to be the Apostle of Rome. 
In 1533 he arrived in Rome without any money. He had not informed his father of the step he was  taking, and he had deliberately cut himself off from his kinsman's patronage. He was, however, at once befriended by Galeotto Caccia, a Florentine resident, who gave him a room in his house and an allowance of flour, in return for which he undertook the education of his two sons. For seventeen years Philip lived as a layman in Rome, probably without thinking of becoming a priest. It was perhaps while tutor to the boys, that he wrote most of the poetry which he composed both in Latin and in Italian. Before his death he burned all his writings, and only a few of his sonnets have come down to us. He spent some three years, beginning about 1535, in the study of philosophy at the Sapienza, and of theology in the school of the Augustinians. When he considered that he had learnt enough, he sold his books, and gave the price to the poor. Though he never again made study his regular occupation, whenever he was called upon to cast aside his habitual reticence, he would surprise the most learned with the depth and clearness of his theological knowledge. 

He now devoted himself entirely to the sanctification of his own soul and the good of his neighbour. 
His active apostolate began with solitary and unobtrusive visits to the hospitals. Next he induced others to accompany him. Then he began to frequent the shops, warehouses, banks, and publicplaces of Rome, melting the hearts of those whom he chanced to meet, and exhorting them to serve God. In 1544, or later, he became the friend of St. Ignatius. Many of his disciples tried and found their vocations in the infant Society of Jesus; but the majority remained in the world, and formed the nucleus of what afterwards became the Brotherhood of the Little Oratory. Though he "appeared not fasting to men", his private life was that of a hermit. His single daily meal was of bread and water, to which a few herbs were sometimes added, the furniture of his room consisted of a bed, to which he usually preferred the floor, a table, a few chairs, and a rope to hang his clothes on; and he disciplined 
himself frequently with small chains. Tried by fierce temptations, diabolical as well as human, he 
passed through them all unscathed, and the purity of his soul manifested itself in certain striking 
physical traits. He prayed at first mostly in the church of S. Eustachio, hard by Caccia's house. Next he took to visiting the Seven Churches. But it was in the catacomb of S. Sebastiano -- confounded by early biographers with that of S. Callisto -- that he kept the longest vigils and received the most abundant consolations. In this catacomb, a few days before Pentecost in 1544, the well-known miracle of his heart took place. Bacci describes it thus: "While he was with the greatest earnestness asking of the Holy Ghost His gifts, there appeared to him a globe of fire, which entered into his mouth and lodged in his breast; and thereupon he was suddenly surprised with such a fire of love, that, unable to bear it, he threw himself on the ground, and, like one trying to cool himself, bared his breast to temper in some measure the flame which he felt. When he had remained so for some time, and was a little recovered, he rose up full of unwonted joy, and immediately all his body began to shake with a violent tremour; and putting his hand to his bosom, he felt by the side of his heart, a swelling about as big as a man's fist, but neither then nor afterwards was it attended with the slightest pain or wound." The cause of this swelling was discovered by the doctors who examined his body after death. The saint's heart had been dilated under the sudden impulse of love, and in order that it might 
have sufficient room to move, two ribs had been broken, and curved in the form of an arch. From the time of the miracle till his death, his heart would palpitate violently whenever he performed any spiritual action. 

During his last years as a layman, Philip's apostolate spread rapidly. In 1548, together with his 
confessor, Persiano Rosa, he founded the Confraternity of the Most Holy Trinity for looking after pilgrims and convalescents. Its members met for Communion, prayer, and other spiritual exercises in the church of S. Salvatore, and the saint himself introduced exposition of the Blessed Sacrament once a month (see FORTY HOURS' DEVOTION). At these devotions Philip preached, though still a layman, and we learn that on one occasion alone he converted no less than thirty dissolute youths. In 1550 a doubt occurred to him as to whether he should not discontinue his active work and retire into absolute solitude. His perplexity was set at rest by a vision of St. John the Baptist, and by another vision of two souls in glory, one of whom was eating a roll of bread, signifying God's will that he should live in Rome for the good of souls as though he were in a desert, abstaining as far as possible 
from the use of meat. 

In 1551, however, he received a true vocation from God. At the bidding of his confessor -- nothing short of this would overcome his humility -- he entered the priesthood, and went to live at S. Girolamo, where a staff of chaplains was supported by the Confraternity of Charity. Each priest had two rooms assigned to him, in which he lived, slept, and ate, under no rule save that of living in charity with his brethren. Among Philip's new companions, besides Persiano Rosa, was Buonsignore Cacciaguerra (see "A Precursor of St. Philip" by Lady Amabel Kerr, London), a remarkable penitent, who was at that time carrying on a vigorous propaganda in favour of frequent Communion. 
Philip, who as a layman had been quietly encouraging the frequent reception of the sacraments, 
expended the whole of his priestly energy in promoting the same cause; but unlike his precursor, he recommended the young especially to confess more often than they communicated. The church of S.Girolamo was much frequented even before the coming of Philip, and his confessional there soon became the centre of a mighty apostolate. He stayed in church, hearing confessions or ready to hear them, from daybreak till nearly midday, and not content with this, he usually confessed some forty persons in his room before dawn. Thus he laboured untiringly throughout his long priesthood. As a physician of souls he received marvellous gifts from God. He would sometimes tell a penitent his most 
secret sins without his confessing them; and once he converted a young nobleman by showing him a vision of hell. Shortly before noon he would leave his confessional to say Mass. His devotion to the    Blessed Sacrament, like the miracle of his heart, is one of those manifestations of sanctity which are peculiarly his own. So great was the fervour of his charity, that, instead of recollecting himself before Mass, he had to use deliberate means of distraction in order to attend to the external rite. During the last five years of his life he had permission to celebrate privately in a little chapel close to his room. At the "Agnus Dei" the server went out, locked the doors, and hung up a notice: "Silence, the Father is saying Mass". When he returned in two hours or more, the saint was so absorbed in God that heseemed to be at the point of death. 

Philip devoted his afternoons to men and boys, inviting them to informal meetings in his room, taking them to visit churches, interesting himself in their amusements, hallowing with his sweet influence every department of their lives. At one time he had a longing desire to follow the example of St.Francis Xavier, and go to India. With this end in view, he hastened the ordination of some of his companions. But in 1557 he sought the counsel of a Cistercian at Tre Fontane; and as on a former occasion he had been told to make Rome his desert, so now the monk communicated to him arevelation he had had from St. John the Evangelist, that Rome was to be his India. Philip at once  abandoned the idea of going abroad, and in the following year the informal meetings in his room developed into regular spiritual exercises in an oratory, which he built over the church. At these exercises laymen preached and the excellence of the discourses, the high quality of the music, and the  charm of Philip's personality attracted not only the humble and lowly, but men of the highest rank and distinction in Church and State. Of these, in 1590, Cardinal Nicolo Sfondrato, became Pope Gregory XIV, and the extreme reluctance of the saint alone prevented the pontiff from forcing him to accept the cardinalate. In 1559, Philip began to organize regular visits to the Seven Churches, in company with crowds of men, priests and religious, and laymen of every rank and condition. These 
visits were the occasion of a short but sharp persecution on the part of a certain malicious faction,who denounced him as "a setter-up of new sects". The cardinal vicar himself summoned him, and without listening to his defence, rebuked him in the harshest terms. For a fortnight the saint was suspended from hearing confessions; but at the end of that time he made his defence, and cleared himself before the ecclesiastical authorities. In 1562, the Florentines in Rome begged him to accept the office of rector of their church, S. Giovanni dei Fiorentini, but he was reluctant to leave S.Girolamo. At length the matter was brought before Pius IV, and a compromise was arrived at (1564). While remaining himself at S. Girolamo, Philip became rector of S. Giovanni, and sent five priests, one of whom was Baronius, to represent him there. They lived in community under Philip astheir superior, taking their meals together, and regularly attending the exercises at S. Girolamo. In 1574, however, the exercises began to be held in an oratory at S. Giovanni. Meanwhile thecommunity was increasing in size, and in 1575 it was formally recognised by Gregory XIII as the Congregation of the Oratory, and given the church of S. Maria in Vallicella. (See ORATORY.) The fathers came to live there in 1577, in which year they opened the Chiesa Nuova, built on the site of the old S. Maria, and transferred the exercises to a new oratory. Philip himself remained at S.Girolamo till 1583, and it was only in obedience to Gregory XIII that he then left his old home and 
came to live at the Vallicella. 

The last years of his life were marked by alternate sickness and recovery. In 1593, he showed the true greatness of one who knows the limits of his own endurance, and resigned the office of superior  which had been conferred on him for life. In 1594, when he was in an agony of pain, the Blessed Virgin appeared to him, and cured him. At the end of March, 1595, he had a severe attack of fever,   which lasted throughout April; but in answer to his special prayer God gave him strength to y Mass on 1 May in honour of SS. Philip and James. On the following 12 May he was seized with a violent haemorrhage, and Cardinal Baronius, who had succeeded him as superior, gave him Extreme Unction. After that he seemed to revive a little and his friend Cardinal Frederick Borromeo brought  him the Viaticum, which he received with loud protestations of his own unworthiness. On the next     day he was perfectly well, and till the actual day of his death went about his usual duties, even reciting    the Divine Office, from which he was dispensed. But on 15 May he predicted that he had only ten  more days to live. On 25 May, the feast of Corpus Christi, he went to say Mass in his little chapel,   two hours earlier than usual. "At the beginning of his Mass", writes Bacci, "he remained for some time looking fixedly at the hill of S. Onofrio, which was visible from the chapel, just as if he saw some 
great vision. On coming to the Gloria in Excelsis he began to sing, which was an unusual thing for him, and sang the whole of it with the greatest joy and devotion, and all the rest of the Mass he said with extraordinary exultation, and as if singing." He was in perfect health for the rest of that day, and  made his usual night prayer; but when in bed, he predicted the hour of the night at which he would die. About an hour after midnight Father Antonio Gallonio, who slept under him, heard him walking  up and down, and went to his room. He found him lying on the bed, suffering from another haemorrhage. "Antonio, I am going", he said; Gallonio thereupon fetched the medical men and the fathers of the congregation. Cardinal Baronius made the commendation of his soul, and asked him to give the fathers his final blessing. The saint raised his hand slightly, and looked up to heaven. Then inclining his head towards the fathers, he breathed his last. Philip was beatified by Paul V in 1615, and canonized by Gregory XV in 1622. 

It is perhaps by the method of contrast that the distinctive characteristics of St. Philip and his work  are brought home to us most forcibly (see Newman, "Sermons on Various Occasions", n. xii;"Historical Sketches", III, end of ch. vii). We hail him as the patient reformer, who leaves outwardthings alone and works from within, depending rather on the hidden might of sacrament and prayer than on drastic policies of external improvement; the director of souls who attaches more value to  mortification of the reason than to bodily austerities, protests that men may become saints in the world no less than in the cloister, dwells on the importance of serving God in a cheerful spirit, and gives a quaintly humorous turn to the maxims of ascetical theology; the silent watcher of the times, who takes no active part in ecclesiastical controversies and is yet a motive force in their development,  now encouraging the use of ecclesiastical history as a bulwark against Protestantism, now insisting on  the absolution of a monarch, whom other counsellors would fain exclude from the sacraments (see BARONIUS), now praying that God may avert a threatened condemnation (see SAVONAROLA)  and receiving a miraculous assurance that his prayer is heard (see Letter of Ercolani referred to by   Capecelatro); the founder of a Congregation, which relies more on personal influence than on              disciplinary organization, and prefers the spontaneous practice of counsels of perfection to their  enforcement by means of vows; above all, the saint of God, who is so irresistibly attractive, so  eminently lovable in himself, as to win the title of the "Amabile santo". 

C. SEBASTIAN RITCHIE 
Transcribed by Herman F. Holbrook 
For the Reverend David Martin, Priest, of the London Oratory Back to the table